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Science, Technology, and War

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This chapter talks about how science and technology shape society and how they connect to broader issues like social change, inequality, and even war and terrorism. Science focuses on explaining and predicting natural and social events, while technology applies those discoveries to everyday problems. Although, new innovations often come with technological dualism , meaning they bring both positive outcomes, like more efficiency and medical advancements, but also negative ones, like job loss or environmental damage. As societies moved from mechanization in manual labor to digital and automated systems, changes sometimes happened faster than that culture could adapt to, leading to culture lag . From a sociological perspective, functionalism sees science, technology, and war as meeting certain societal needs by promoting stability, unity, and problem-solving, even if they can also create dysfunction. Conflict theory argues that these developments mainly benefit powerful groups such as ...
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Environmental Problems

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 This week's chapter on environmental issues talks about some of the most difficult challenges we face today, and environmental sociology helps us understand how human behavior affects and is affected by the natural world. Concepts like demography , the study of population trends, and migration , the movement of people across regions, show how population patterns relate to resource use, pollution, and sustainability. These problems also highlight specific social inequalities: environmental inequality and environmental racism reveal that low-income communities and communities of color are often the most exposed to pollution, toxic waste, and climate-related hazards. Different sociological perspectives help explain these issues in individual ways. Functionalism sees society as a system where all parts work together and views severe environmental problems as dysfunctions that disrupt social stability. Conflict theory focuses on how power and the pursuit of profit drive environ...
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Urban and Rural Problems

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In chapter 8, it talks about urbanization, the shift of populations from rural areas into cities, which has shaped communities from ancient settlements like Jericho and Aleppo , both early examples of long-inhabited cities, to modern U.S. urban centers expanded through immigration , the large arrival of new citizens from other countries, and industrialization , the movement toward factory-based production that drew people to live near workplaces. Early cities struggled with limited sanitation , meaning the absence of effective systems to manage waste, which led to disease, while later cities experienced social problems such as crime , identified in the notes as one of the harms intensified by rapid urban growth. The displacement of Seneca Village , a 19th-century African American settlement removed for the construction of Central Park, reflects how urban development has reshaped communities. Contemporary issues such as gentrification , defined in the notes as neighborhood changes driv...
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Race, Ethnicity, Sex, Gender and Sexuality

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 In this chapter, it talks about how race , ethnicity , sex , gender , and sexuality all affect inequality in society. Race is the idea that people can be grouped based on physical traits like skin color or facial features, but scientists and sociologists say these differences don’t have a real biological meaning. Instead, race is a social construction , which means it’s something society created and gave meaning to, not something that actually defines who people are. Ethnicity is more about shared culture, history, and traditions that make groups unique, like language or social customs/norms. The chapter also explains it through the three main sociological perspectives. Functionalism sees inequality as dysfunctional because it stops society from reaching its full potential. Conflict theory says inequality happens because groups fight over power and  resources , and the dominant group tries to stay in control. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how labels and  mean...
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Poverty, Work, and the Economy

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Chapter six on poverty , work , and the economy explains how these issues are connected and affect people’s lives in many ways. It touches on the poverty line , which was first created in 1963, is now outdated because it doesn’t include modern expenses like childcare, healthcare, and transportation, which makes it hard to truly measure who is poor. Poverty impacts women, children, and people of color the most, showing how stratification,  the unequal ranking of people in society, continues to define people's opportunities. There are two main explanations for why poverty exists. First, the individualistic explanation , which blames personal choices and motivation. Second, the structural explanation , which points to problems like low wages, unemployment, and lack of access to education. The chapter also talks about the culture of poverty , or the idea that people can become trapped by attitudes and habits formed through long-term poverty. As for the work environment, outsourcing a...
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Children, Families, and Schools

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 This chapter on Children, Families, and Schools looks at how families and schools have changed over time and the roles they play in society. A family is a group of people related by blood, marriage, adoption, or commitment who provide emotional support ( help and comfort during stressful or tough times) and socialize children (teaching them the rules, values, and behaviors they need to fit into society). Families today are different from the past, with higher divorce rates, more couples living together without being married, and more women working outside the home than ever before. Schools also serve many people, but differences in funding, resources, and expectations create challenges for some students. From a functionalist perspective, families and schools are important because they help people grow, fit into society, and provide support. Conflict theory shows how they can reinforce inequality, while symbolic interactionism focuses on how everyday interactions between fami...
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Crime and Criminal Justice

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Chapter 4, about c rime and justice  talks about how society defines and responds to behaviors that break the rules or laws, starting with the key question: What’s the difference between deviance and crime? Deviance refers to actions that go against social norms and draw social disapproval, while crime involves behaviors that violate laws and are seen as especially harmful or dangerous. It explains that not every deviant act is a crime, but society decides which behaviors are serious enough to be punished by the law. The chapter also discusses how the media can distort our perception of crime by overdramatizing violent acts and creating unnecessary fear in people, even when the crime rates are actually declining. It introduces five main types of crime: violent crime , which includes acts like murder and assault,  property crime , involving theft or damage to people's property or possessions,  white-collar crime , which is done by professionals or corporations for finan...
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